Al-Qadisiyah Journal for Engineering Sciences

Treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater by photo-anodic oxidation process with Gr /Bi-Ni-Sb-SnO2 rotating photo-anode: Performance and kinetic study

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

Heba Fareed Uonis
Ali Hussain Abbar

Department of Biochemical Engineering, Al-Khwarizmi College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, 10071, Iraq.

10.30772/qjes.2025.165011.1742
Abstract
This work explores the use of photoelectrocatalysis (PEC) as one of the most advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for petroleum refinery wastewater (PRW) treatment. A photoelectrochemical reactor equipped with a Gr/Bi-Ni-Sb-SnO2 photoanode and UVC irradiation was designed to enhance the degradation of pollutants. The effects of key operational parameters, including current density, pH, and anode rotation speed, on the treatment efficiency were systematically evaluated. The results confirmed that increasing the current density provided better chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal, while increasing pH above 5 results in a decrease in COD removal. In addition, increasing the anode rotation speed improved mass transfer and pollutant decomposition up to 200 rpm; after that, no significant improvement was observed, with a slight decrease in COD removal. According to the results, the best performance was achieved at a pH of 5, a current density of 6 mA/cm2, and a rotation speed of 200 rpm, achieving a COD removal efficiency of 86.2% in 90 min with an energy consumption of 110.34 kWh/kg-1 COD. Kinetic studies confirmed that the degradation of COD over time exhibited pseudo-first-order kinetics, with an R2 of at least 0.999. Considering all factors, the results demonstrate that PEC technology, using Gr/Bi-Ni-Sb-SnO2 Photoanode, offers a low-energy, sustainable, and facilitating method for the degradation of complex petroleum-derived pollutants. This study highlights the potential of PEC as a practical alternative to conventional industrial wastewater treatment methods.

Keywords

tin oxide
petroleum waste
photo-anodic process
pseudo-first order model
half-life time
Crossmark
  1. Z. Abbas and A. Abbas, “Optimization of the electro-fenton process for cod reduction from refinery wastewater,” Environmental Engineering Management
    Journal (EEMJ), vol. 19, no. 11, pp. 2029–2037, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.30638/eemj.2020.192
  2. A. Srinivasan and T. Viraraghavan, “Decolorization of dye wastewaters by biosorbents: a review,” Journal of environmental management, vol. 91, no. 10, pp.
    1915–1929, 2010. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.05.003
  3. L. Da Silva, R. Ruggiero, P. Gontijo, R. Pinto, B. Royer, E. Lima, and T. Calvete, “Adsorption of brilliant red 2be dye from water solutions
    by a chemically modified sugarcane bagasse lignin,” Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 168, no. 2, pp. 620–628, 2011. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2011.01.040
  4. M. Jiad and A. Abbar, “Treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater by electrofenton process using a low-cost porous graphite air-diffusion cathode with a
    novel design,” Chemical Engineering Research and Design, vol. 193, pp. 207–221, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2023.03.021
  5. K. Pirkanniemi and M. Sillanpaa, “Heterogeneous water phase catalysis as an environmental application: a review,” Chemosphere, vol. 48, no. 10, pp.
    1047–1060, 2002. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(02)00168-6
  6. O. Abdelwahab, N. Amin, and E. El-Ashtoukhy, “Electrochemical removal of phenol from oil refinery wastewater,” Journal of hazardous materials, vol. 163,
    no. 2-3, pp. 711–716, 2009. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.07.016
  7. H. Eccles, “Treatment of metal-contaminated wastes: why select a biological process?” Trends In Biotechnology, vol. 17, no. 12, pp. 462–465, 1999. [Online].
    Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-7799(99)01381-5
  8. M. Jiad, A. Abbar, and Z. Jabbar, “Advanced treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater by electro-fenton and photo-catalytic processes,” environmental
    technology reviews, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 400–426, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1080/21622515.2025.2479713
  9. P. Fedorak and S. Hrudey, “The effects of phenol and some alkyl phenolics on batch anaerobic methanogenesis,” water research, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 361–367,
    1984. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(84)90113-1
  10. R. Barreiro and J. Pratt, “Toxic effects of chemicals on microorganisms,” water environment research, vol. 64, no. 4, pp. 632–641, 1992. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1554-7531.1992.tb00045.x
  11. W. Elmobarak, B. Hameed, F. Almomani, and A. Z. Abdullah, “A review on the treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater using advanced oxidation
    processes,” Catalysts, vol. 11, no. 7, p. 782, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11070782
  12. A. Bi ´n and S. Sobera-Madej, “Comparison of the advanced oxidation processes (uv, uv/h2o2 and o3) for the removal of antibiotic substances during
    wastewater treatment,” ozone: science engineering, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 136–139, 2012. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1080/01919512.2012.650130
  13. S. Yu, Z. Xie, X. Wu, Y. Zheng, Y. Shi, Z. Xiong, and B. Lai, “Review of advanced oxidation processes for treating hospital sewage to achieve
    decontamination and disinfection,” chinese chemical letters, vol. 35, no. 1, p. 108714, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108714
  14. A. Thakur, r. Kumar, A. Kumar, r. Shankar, n. Khan, K. Gupta, and R. Arya, “Pharmaceutical wastewater treatment via advanced oxidation-based integrated
    processes: an engineering and economic perspective,” Journal of Water Process Engineering, vol. 54, no. 1, p. 103977, 2023. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2023.103977
  15. p. Bautista, A. Mohedano, J. Casas, J. Zazo, and J. Rodr´ıguez, “An overview of the application of fenton oxidation to industrial wastewater treatment,”
    Journal of chemical technology biotechnology, vol. 83, no. 10, pp. 1323–1338, 2008. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.1988
  16. P. Pandis, C. Kalogirou, E. Kanellou, c. Vaitsis, M. Savvidou, G. Sourkouni, and C. Argirusis, “Key points of advanced oxidation processes (aops) for
    wastewater, organic pollutants and pharmaceutical waste treatment: a mini review,” ChemEngineering, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 8, 2022. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.3390/chemengineering6010008
  17. n. Roslan, h. Lau, N. Suhaimi, N. Shahri, S. Verinda, M. Nur, and A. Usman, “Recent advances in advanced oxidation processes for degrading pharmaceuticals
    in wastewater—a review,” catalysts, vol. 14, no. 3, p. 189, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14030189
  18.  v. Mishra, v. Mahajan, and J. Joshi, “wet air oxidation,” industrial engineering chemistry research, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 2–48, 1995. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1021/ie00040a001
  19.  J. Bai, Y. Liu, J. li, b. Zhou, Q. Zheng, and W. Cai, “A novel thin-layer photoelectrocatalytic (pec) reactor with double-faced titania nanotube arrays
    electrode for effective degradation of tetracycline,” Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, vol. 98, no. 3-4, pp. 154–160, 2010. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2010.05.024
  20. Z. Zhao, Z. Wu, X. Lin, F. Han, Z. Liang, L. Huang, and L. Niu, “A label-free pec aptasensor platform based on g-c3n4/bivo4 heterojunction for tetracycline
    detection in food analysis,” food chemistry, vol. 402, p. 134258, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134258
  21.  P. Fernandez-Ibanez, S. McMichael, A. Cabanillas, S. Alkharabsheh, A. Moranchel, and J. Byrne, “New trends on photoelectrocatalysis (pec):
    nanomaterials, wastewater treatment and hydrogen generation,” Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering, vol. 34, p. 100725, 2021. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coche.2021.100725
  22. X. Dong, D. Liu, X. Meng, and T. You, “Research progress on photoelectrochemical sensors for contamination analysis in agricultural fields,” Analytical
    sciences, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 459–481, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.2116/analsci.21SAR09
  23.  S. Ye, Y. Chen, X. Yao, and J. Zhang, “Simultaneous removal of organic pollutants and heavy metals in wastewater by photoelectrocatalysis: a review,”
    Chemosphere, vol. 273, p. 128503, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128503
  24. Q. Dang, L. wang, J. Liu, D. wang, J. Chai, M. Wu, and L. Tang, “Recent progress of photoelectrocatalysis systems for wastewater treatment,” Journal of
    Water Process Engineering, vol. 53, no. 9, p. 103609, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2023.103609
  25.  T. Ochiai and A. Fujishima, “Photoelectrochemical properties of tio2 photocatalyst and its applications for environmental purification,”
    Journal of photochemistry and photobiology c: photochemistry reviews, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 247–262, 2012. [Online]. Available: https:
    //doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2012.07.001
  26. S. Mcmichael, P. Fern ´andez-Ib ´a ˜nez, and J. Byrne, “A review of photoelectrocatalytic reactors for water and wastewater treatment,” Water, vol. 13, no. 9, p.
    1198, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.3390/w13091198
  27.  E. Zarei and R. Ojani, “Fundamentals and some applications of photoelectrocatalysis and effective factors on its efficiency: A review,” Journal of Solid State
    Electrochemistry, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 305–336, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10008-016-3385-2
  28. J. Liu, H. Wu, J. Sun, S. Li, A. Hassani, and M. Zhou, “Non-tio 2-based photoanodes for photoelectrocatalytic wastewater treatment: electrode synthesis,
    evaluation, and characterization,” EES catalysis, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 921–942, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1039/d5ey00068h
  29.  A. Ali, S. Mohapatra, J. Van, and H. Spanjers, “bivo4-based photoanodes for the photoelectrocatalytic removal of trace organic pollutants from
    water: a mini review on recent developments,” Current opinion in environmental science health, vol. 45, p. 100615, 2025. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2025.100615
  30.  M. Tayebi, Z. Masoumi, b. seo, c. Lim, H. Kim, and B. Lee, “Efficient and stable moo x@ mo-bivo4 photoanodes for photoelectrochemical
    water oxidation: optimization and understanding,” ACS applied energy materials, vol. 5, no. 9, pp. 11 568–11 580, 2022. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.2c02066
  31. H. Yu, X. Sun, b. Zhao, W. Fan, W. Qin, M. Huo, and Y. Lu, “Enhanced photoelectrocatalytic degradation of tetracycline using a bifacial
    electrode of nickel-polyethylene glycol-pbo2//ti//tio2-ag2o,” Journal of electroanalytical chemistry, vol. 893, p. 115319, 2021. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115319
  32. S. Kahng and J. Kim, “Heterojunction photoanode of sno2 and mo-doped bivo4 for boosting photoelectrochemical performance and tetracycline hydrochloride
    degradation,” Chemosphere, vol. 291, no. part 2, p. 132800, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132800
  33. S. Yang, W. Choi, and H. Park, “tio2 nanotube array photoelectrocatalyst and ni–sb–sno2 electrocatalyst bifacial electrodes: a new type of bifunctional hybrid
    platform for water treatment,” ACS applied materials interfaces, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 1907–1914, 2015. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1021/am5076748
  34. J. Zhang, J. Luo, X. Zhao, K. wang, T. Xie, T. Xu, and M. Qiao, “Enhanced photoelectrocatalytic decomplexation of ni-edta and simultaneous recovery of
    metallic nickel via tio2/ni-sb-sno2 bifunctional photoanode and activated carbon fiber cathode,” Journal of environmental sciences, vol. 126, pp. 198–210,
    2023. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2022.05.023
  35. f. Yu, s. Hong, b. Guo, X. Ren, and X. Zhou, “tio2 nanotubes array based ti/tio2nts/sno2-sb-bi/nato electrode for electrosynthesis of ozone
    water and application in wastewater treatment,” Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, vol. 186, p. 109098, 2025. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2024.109098
  36.  J. Mora-Gomez, M. Garcia-Gabaldon, E. Otega, M. Sanchez-Rivera, S. Mestre, and V. P ´erez-herranz, “Evaluation of new ceramic electrodes based on
    sb-doped sno2 for the removal of emerging compounds present in wastewater,” Ceramics international, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 2216–2222, 2018. [Online].
    Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.10.178
  37. C. Domingo-Torner, M. Garc´ıa-Gabald ´on, M. Mart´ı-Calatayud, S. Mestre, and V. P ´erez-Herranz, “Norfloxacin mineralization under light
    exposure using sb–sno2 ceramic anodes coated with bifeo3 photocatalyst,” Chemosphere, vol. 313, p. 137518, 2023. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137518
  38.  H. Uonis and A. Abbar, “Photoelectrocatalytic degradation of tetracycline by a novel gr/ni-sb-sno2 photo-anode,” South African Journal of Chemical
    Engineering, vol. 55, pp. 24–39, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajce.2025.10.004
  39.  J. L ´opez-Pe ˜nalver, M. S ´anchez-Polo, C. G ´omez-Pacheco, and J. Rivera-Utrilla, “Photodegradation of tetracyclines in aqueous solution by using uv
    and uv/ho oxidation processes,” Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, vol. 85, no. 10, pp. 1325–1333, 2010. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.2435
  40.  Y. Liu, X. Gan, B. Zhou, B. Xiong, J. Li, and e. a. Dong, C., “Photoelectrocatalytic degradation of tetracycline by highly effective tio2 nanopore arrays
    electrode,” Journal of hazardous materials, vol. 171, no. 1-3, pp. 678–683, 2009. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.06.054
  41.  F. Abd and A. Abbar, “Treatment of hospital wastewater by anodic oxidation using a new approach made by combining rotation with pulsed electric current
    on cu-sno2–sb2o5 rotating cylinder anode,” Heliyon, vol. 11, no. 2, p. e42069, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2025.e42069
  42.  G. Asgari, A. Seid-mohammadi, A. Rahmani, R. Shokoohi, and H. Abdipour, “Concurrent elimination of arsenic and nitrate from aqueous environments
    through a novel nanocomposite: fe3o4-zif8@ eggshell membrane matrix,” Journal of molecular liquids, vol. 411, no. 1, p. 125810, 2024. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2024.125810
  43. M. Zhou, Q. Dai, L. Lei, C. Ma, and D. Wang, “Long life modified lead dioxide anode for organic wastewater treatment: electrochemical characteristics and
    degradation mechanism,” Environmental science technology, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 363–370, 2005. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1021/es049313a
  44.  Y. Sun, s. Cheng, L. li, Z. Yu, Z. Mao, and H. Huang, “Facile sealing treatment with stannous citrate complex to enhance performance of electrodeposited
    ti/sno2–sb electrode,” Chemosphere, vol. 255, p. 126973, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126973
  45.  H. Nsaif, N. Majeed, and R. Salman, “Preparation of nano sno2-sb2o3 composite electrode by cathodic deposition for the elimination
    of phenol by sonoelectrochemical oxidation,” Polish Journal of Chemical Technology, vol. 26, no. 3, p. 327, 2024. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.2478/pjct-2024-0026
  46.  H. Nsaif and N. Majeed, “Modified graphite with tin oxide as a promising electrode for reduction of organic pollutants from wastewater
    by sonoelectrochemical oxidation,” Ecological engineering environmental technology, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 307–320, 2024. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.12912/27197050/175437
  47. N. Entezami, M. Farhadian, A. Nazar, and S. Tangestaninejad, “Tetracycline removal from aqueous solution through photoelectrochemical oxidation process
    using bi2o3/zif-67@ gp under visible light irradiation: effects of operational parameters, water matrix,” Chemical Engineering and processing-process
    intensification, vol. 188, no. 1, p. 109370, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2023.109370
  48. G. Dinesh and R. Saranya, “Sonochemical facile synthesis of bismuth oxide nanoparticles using citrus lemon extract and its catalytic activity on azo dye
    degradation,” Water, air, soil pollution, vol. 235, p. 621, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-024-07355-3
  49. M. Petrovi ´c, I. Slipper, M. Antonijevi ´c, g. Nikoli ´c, J. Mitrovi ´c, D. Boji ´c, and A. Boji ´c, “Characterization of a bi2o3 coat based anode prepared by
    galvanostatic electrodeposition and its use for the electrochemical degradation of reactive orange 4,” Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers,
    vol. 50, pp. 282–287, 2015. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2014.12.010
  50. A. Ahamed, P. Kumar, and M. Karthikeyan, “Wet chemical synthesis and characterization of nio nanoparticles,” Int. j. nano. corr. sci. engg, vol. 2, no. 5, pp.
    31–38, 2015.
  51.  H. Qiao, Z. Wei, H. Yang, L. Zhu, and X. Yan, “Preparation and characterization of nio nanoparticles by anodic arc plasma method,” Journal of
    nanomaterials, vol. 2009, no. 1, p. 795928, 2009. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1155/2009/795928
  52.  I. Shakir, S. Haider, P. Agboola, and N. Al-khalli, “Fabrication of nio/sno2 heterojunction based photocatalyst for efficient sunlight degradation of organic
    dyes,” Journal of Taibah University for Science, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 656–665, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1080/16583655.2021.1996135
  53. N. Srivastava and P. Srivastava, “Realizing nio nanocrystals from a simple chemical method,” Bulletin of materials science, vol. 33, pp. 653–656, 2010.
    [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12034-011-0142-0
  54. X. Li, D. Shao, H. Xu, W. Lv, and W. Yan, “Fabrication of a stable ti/tioxhy/sb sno2 anode for aniline degradation in different electrolytes,” Chemical
    engineering Journal, vol. 285, no. 1, pp. 1–10, 2016. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.09.089
  55.  L. Zhang, L. Xu, J. he, and J. Zhang, “Preparation of ti/sno2-sb electrodes modified by carbon nanotube for anodic oxidation of dye wastewater and
    combination with nanofiltration,” Electrochimica acta, vol. 117, no. 1, pp. 192–201, 2014. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2013.11.117
  56. W. Zhao, J. Xing, D. Chen, Z. Bai, and Y. Xia, “Study on the performance of an improved ti/sno 2–sb 2 o 3/pbo 2 based on porous titanium substrate
    compared with planar titanium substrate,” RSC Advances, vol. 5, no. 34, pp. 26 530–26 539, 2015. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA13492C
  57. T. Duan, Q. Wen, Y. Chen, Y. Zhou, and Y. Duan, “Enhancing electrocatalytic performance of sb-doped sno2 electrode by compositing nitrogen-doped
    graphene nanosheets,” Journal of hazardous materials, vol. 280, pp. 304–314, 2014. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.08.018
  58.  S. Yang, D. Kim, and H. Park, “Shift of the reactive species in the sb–sno2-electrocatalyzed inactivation of e. coli and degradation of phenol: effects of nickel
    doping and electrolytes,” Environmental science technology, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 2877–2884, 2014. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1021/es404688z
  59. P. Alulema-Pullupaxi, P. Espinoza-Montero, C. Sigcha-Pallo, R. Vargas, L. Fern ´andez, J. Peralta-Hernandez, and J. Paz, “Fundamentals and applications of
    photoelectrocatalysis as an efficient process to remove pollutants from water: a review,” Chemosphere, vol. 281, p. 130821, 2021. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130821
  60. Y. Peng, H. Chen, and C. Huang, “The synergistic effect of photoelectrochemical (pec) reactions exemplified by concurrent perfluorooctanoic acid (pfoa)
    degradation and hydrogen generation over carbon and nitrogen codoped tio2 nanotube arrays (c-n-tntas) photoelectrode,” Applied Catalysis B: Environmental,
    vol. 209, pp. 437–446, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2017.02.084
  61. P. Kaur, Y. Park, M. Sillanp ¨a ¨a, and M. Imteaz, “Synthesis of a novel sno2/graphene-like carbon/tio2 electrodes for the degradation of recalcitrant
    emergent pharmaceutical pollutants in a photo-electrocatalytic system,” Journal of cleaner production, vol. 313, p. 127915, 2021. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127915
  62. A. Ahdour, N. Douihi, A. Taoufyq, L. Aneflous, b. Bakiz, and A. Benlhachemi, “Electrocatalytic and photoelectrocatalytic degradation of tetracycline using
    bahpo4/ssa photoanode: insights from bbd-rsm and ccd-rsm experimental designs,” Surfaces and interfaces, vol. 58, p. 105874, 2025. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2025.105874
  63. B. Orimolade, B. Zwane, B. Koiki, M. Rivallin, M. Bechelany, N. Mabuba, and O. Arotiba, “Coupling cathodic electro-fenton with anodic
    photo-electrochemical oxidation: a feasibility study on the mineralization of paracetamol,” Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, vol. 8, no. 5, p.
    104394, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.104394
  64. E. Umukoro, N. Kumar, J. Ngila, and O. Arotiba, “Expanded graphite supported p-n mos2-sno2 heterojunction nanocomposite electrode for enhanced
    photo-electrocatalytic degradation of a pharmaceutical pollutant,” Journal of electroanalytical chemistry, vol. 827, pp. 193–203, 2018. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2018.09.027
  65. O. Ama, N. Mabuba, and O. Arotiba, “Synthesis, characterization, and application of exfoliated graphite/zirconium nanocomposite electrode
    for the photoelectrochemical degradation of organic dye in water,” Electrocatalysis, vol. 6, pp. 390–397, 2015. [Online]. Available: https:
    //doi.org/10.1007/s12678-015-0258-x
  66. H. Rajput, E. Kwon, S. Younis, S. Weon, T. Jeon, W. Choi, and K. Kim, “Photoelectrocatalysis as a high-efficiency platform for pulping wastewater treatment
    and energy production,” Chemical engineering Journal, vol. 412, p. 128612, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.128612
  67. M. Pirsaheb, H. Hoseini, and V. Abtin, “Photoelectrocatalytic degradation of humic acid and disinfection over nitio2-ni/ac-ptfe electrode under natural
    sunlight irradiation: modeling, optimization and reaction pathway,” Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, vol. 118, pp. 204–214, 2021.
    [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2020.12.023
  68. L. Tang, J. Wang, G. Zeng, Y. Liu, Y. Deng, Y. Zhou, and Z. Guo, “Enhanced photocatalytic degradation of norfloxacin in aqueous bi2wo6 dispersions
    containing nonionic surfactant under visible light irradiation,” Journal of hazardous materials, vol. 306, no. 10, pp. 295–304, 2016. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.12.044
  69. E. Kusmierek, “Semiconductor electrode materials applied in photoelectrocatalytic wastewater treatment—an overview,” Catalysts, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 439,
    2020. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.3390/catal10040439
  70. A. Tayyebi, T. Soltani, and B. Lee, “Effect of ph on photocatalytic and photoelectrochemical (pec) properties of monoclinic bismuth vanadate,” Journal of
    Colloid and Interface Science, vol. 534, pp. 37–46, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2018.08.095
  71. X. Zhou, Y. Zheng, J. Zhou, and S. Zhou, “Degradation kinetics of photoelectrocatalysis on landfill leachate using codoped tio2/ti photoelectrodes,” Journal
    of nanomaterials, vol. 2015, no. 1, p. 810579, 2015. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/810579
  72. H. Znad, K. Abbas, S. Hena, and M. Awual, “Synthesis a novel multilamellar mesoporous tio2/zsm-5 for photo-catalytic degradation of
    methyl orange dye in aqueous media,” Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 218–227, 2018. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2017.11.077
  73. W. Xie, Y. Shi, Y. Wang, Y. Zheng, H. Liu, Q. Hu, and Z. Guo, “Electrospun iron/cobalt alloy nanoparticles on carbon nanofibers towards exhaustive
    electrocatalytic degradation of tetracycline in wastewater,” Chemical engineering Journal, vol. 405, no. 14, p. 126585, 2021. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.126585
  74. H. Cho, H. Seo, H. Joo, J. Kim, and J. Yoon, “Performance evaluation of rotating photoelectrocatalytic reactor for enhanced degradation of methylene blue,”
    Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, vol. 34, no. 10, pp. 2780–2786, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11814-017-0198-7
  75. K. Li, C. Yang, Y. Wang, J. Jia, Y. Xu, and Y. He, “A high-efficient rotating disk photoelectrocatalytic (pec) reactor with macro light harvesting
    pyramid-surface electrode,” Aiche Journal, vol. 58, no. 8, pp. 2448–2455, 2012. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.12755
  76. Y. Xu, Y. he, X. Cao, d. Zhong, and J. Jia, “tio2/ti rotating disk photoelectrocatalytic (pec) reactor: a combination of highly effective thin-film pec
    and conventional pec processes on a single electrode,” Environmental science technology, vol. 42, no. 7, pp. 2612–2617, 2008. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1021/es702921h
  77. A. Das and L. Chen, “A review on electrochemical advanced oxidation treatment of dairy wastewater,” environments, vol. 11, no. 6, p. 124, 2024. [Online].
    Available: https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11060124
  78. M. Collivignarelli, M. Carnevale miino, H. Arab, M. Bestetti, and S. Franz, “Efficiency and energy demand in polishing treatment of wastewater
    treatment plants effluents: photoelectrocatalysis vs. photocatalysis and photolysis,” Water, vol. 13, no. 6, p. 821, 2021. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.3390/w13060821
  79. X. Liang, S. Yu, B. Meng, X. Wang, C. Yang, C. Shi, and J. Ding, “Advanced tio 2-based photoelectrocatalysis: material modifications, charge dynamics, and
    environmental–energy applications,” Catalysts, vol. 15, no. 6, p. 542, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15060542
  80. E. Brillas and C. Mart´ınez-huitle, “Decontamination of wastewaters containing synthetic organic dyes by electrochemical methods. an updated review,”
    Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, vol. 166-167, pp. 603–643, 2015. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2014.11.016
  81. P. Nidheesh, M. Zhou, and M. Oturan, “An overview on the removal of synthetic dyes from water by electrochemical advanced oxidation processes,”
    Chemosphere, vol. 197, no. 3, pp. 210–227, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.12.195
  82. C. Sigcha Pallo, “Estudio de la degradaci ´on de diclofenaco en medio acuoso mediante fotoelectrocat ´alisis empleando un foto ´anodo de diamante dopado con
    boro (bdd) modificado con di´oxido de titanio (tio2) (bachelor’s thesis, quito,” 2020.
  83. M. Carre ˜no-lizcano, A. Gualdr ´on-reyes, V. Rodr´ıguez-Gonz ´alez, J. Pedraza-Avella, and M. Ni ˜no-G ´omez, “Photoelectrocatalytic phenol oxidation employing
    nitrogen doped tio2-rgo films as photoanodes,” Catalysis today, vol. 341, pp. 96–103, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2019.02.006
  84. B. Orimolade, b. Koiki, G. Peleyeju, and O. Arotiba, “Visible light driven photoelectrocatalysis on a fto/bivo4/bioi anode for water treatment involving
    emerging pharmaceutical pollutants,” Electrochimica acta, vol. 307, pp. 285–292, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2019.03.217
  85. A. Huda, P. Suman, L. Torquato, B. Silva, C. Handoko, F. Gulo, and M. Orlandi, “Visible light-driven photoelectrocatalytic degradation of acid yellow 17
    using sn3o4 flower-like thin films supported on ti substrate (sn3o4/tio2/ti),” Journal of photochemistry and photobiology a: chemistry, vol. 376, pp. 196–205,
    2019. [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochem.2019.01.039
  86. J. De Brito, G. Bessegato, T. Viana, D. de Oliveira, C. Mart´ınez-huitle, and M. Zanoni, “Combination of photoelectrocatalysis and ozonation as a good
    strategy for organics oxidation and decreased toxicity in oil-produced water,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society, vol. 166, no. 5, p. h3231, 2019. [Online].
    Available: https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0331905jes
  87. G. Li, T. An, J. Chen, G. Sheng, J. Fu, F. Chen, and H. Zhao, “Photoelectrocatalytic decontamination of oilfield produced wastewater containing refractory
    organic pollutants in the presence of high concentration of chloride ions,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 138, no. 2, pp. 392–400, 2006. [Online].
    Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.05.083
  88. L. Cheng, T. Jiang, K. Yan, J. Gong, and J. Zhang, “A dual-cathode photoelectrocatalysis-electroenzymatic catalysis system by coupling bivo4 photoanode
    with hemin/cu and carbon cloth cathodes for degradation of tetracycline,” Electrochimica Acta, vol. 298, no. 1, pp. 561–569, 2019. [Online]. Available:
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2018.12.086
Al-Qadisiyah Journal for Engineering Sciences
Volume 19, Issue 1
Winter 2026
Pages 49-58

  • Receive Date 11 September 2025
  • Revise Date 28 January 2025
  • Accept Date 15 March 2026

Submit Manuscript

Guide for Authors

Article Processing Charges (APC)

Reviewers

Call for Reviewers

Contact Us